Nutrition and Growth

The science of nutrition has advanced beyond expectation since Antoine La­ voisier as early as the 18th century showed that oxygen was necessary to change nutrients in foods to compounds which would become a part of the human body. He was also the first to measure metabolism and to show that oxidation within the body produces heat and energy. In the two hundred years that have elapsed, the essentiality of nitrogen-containing nutrients and of proteins for growth and maintenance of tissue has been established; the ne­ cessity for carbohydrates and certain types of fat for health has been docu­ mented; vitamins necessary to prevent deficiency diseases have been identified and isolated; and the requirement of many mineral elements for health has been demonstrated. Further investigations have defined the role of these nutrients in metabolic processes and quantitated their requirements at various stages of development. Additional studies have involved their use in the possible prevention of, and therapy for, disease conditions.

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Introduction: Perspectives and Needs.- I ? Influences on Growth.- 1 Nutrient Needs.- 1. Energy.- 2. Protein.- 3. Fat.- 4. Vitamins.- 4.1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins.- 4.2. Water-Soluble Vitamins.- 5. Minerals.- 5.1. Iron.- 5.2. Calcium.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 2 Genetic and Nutritional Interactions.- 1. Statistics of Growth Parameters.- 2. Population Differences and National Growth Norms.- 3. Nongenetic Determinants of the Size of the Newborn.- 4. The Multiple-Birth Model in the Study of Growth.- 5. The Genetics of Fatness and Obesity.- 6. Importance of Sample Size in Nutrition-Related Growth Research.- 7. New Strategies for Genetic Research.- 8. Separating Nutrition from Genetics and Vice Versa.- 9. References.- 3 Nondietary Factors and Nutrition.- 1. The Influence of Infection on Growth.- 1.1. Bacterial Infections.- 1.2. Viral and Rickettsial Infections.- 1.3. Protozoal Infections.- 1.4. Helminthic Infections.- 1.5. Diarrhea and Breast Feeding.- 1.6. Weanling Diarrhea.- 2. The Influence of Food Practices on Growth.- 2.1. The Meaning of Food.- 2.2. Food Practices during the Period of Growth.- 3. The Influence of Socioeconomic and Other Social Factors on Growth.- 3.1. Socioeconomic Influences.- 3.2. Food Production.- 3.3. Other Social Factors Influencing Growth.- 4. References.- 4 Metabolic Anomalies, Nutrition, and Growth.- 1. Definitions.- 2. The Vulnerable Tissues.- 2.1. Substrate Deficiency Disorders.- 2.2. Disorders of Regulation.- 2.3. End-Organ Failure.- 3. References.- II ? Ages of Man (Perspectives).- 5 Maternofetal Nutrition.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Influence of Maternal Nutrition on Fetal Growth.- 2.1. Literature Review.- 2.2. The INCAP Longitudinal Study.- 3. Influence of Nutrition on Other Maternal Characteristics.- 3.1. Maternal Anthropometry during Pregnancy.- 3.2. Birth Interval Components.- 3.3. Blood Pressure, Edema, and Proteinuria during Pregnancy.- 4. Implications and Recommendations.- 5. Summary.- 6. References.- 6 The Newborn.- 1. Nutrition of the Full-Term Newborn.- 1.1. Breast Feeding.- 1.2. Formula Feeding.- 1.3. Vitamins.- 1.4. Iron.- 1.5. Fluoride.- 1.6. Minerals.- 1.7. Solid Foods.- 2. Nutrition of the Premature.- 2.1. Special Problems of the Premature.- 2.2. Strategies of Intake.- 2.3. Parenteral Nutrition in the Newborn.- 2.4. Nutritional Monitoring.- 2.5. Necrotizing Enterocolitis.- 2.6. Human Milk in the Premature.- 2.7. The Small-for-Date Infant.- 2.8. Summary.- 3. References.- 7 The Young Child: Normal.- 1. Preschool Age-Definitions of Subgroups.- 2. Anthropometric Data (Swedish Section of the CIE Longitudinal Growth Study).- 3. Effect of Low Birth Weight on Subsequent Growth Pattern.- 4. Body Composition.- 5. Psychomotor and Mental Development.- 6. Sexual Differences.- 7. Ethnic Differences.- 8. Forecasting of Growth and Development from Observations Made in Early Life.- 9. Physical Activity Pattern.- 10. "Normal" Disease Pattern.- 11. Home versus Institutional Environment.- 12. References.- 8 The Young Child: Failure to Thrive.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Causes of Growth Failure.- 2.1. Congenital and Genetic Anomalies.- 2.2. Enzymatic Defects.- 2.3. Endocrine Deficiencies.- 2.4. Chronic Diseases.- 2.5. Miscellaneous Problems.- 3. Failure-to-Thrive Syndrome.- 3.1. Nutritional Factors.- 3.2. Infections.- 3.3. Environmental Factors.- 4. How Does FTT Present?.- 5. The Investigation.- 6. Treatment and Management.- 7. Prevention.- 8. Summary.- 9. References.- 9 The Young Child: Protein-Energy Malnutrition.- 1. Definitions.- 1.1. Mild and Moderate PEM.- 1.2. Severe Forms of PEM.- 1.3. Interrelationships of PEM with Infections.- 1.4. Classification of PEM.- 2. Epidemiology.- 2.1. Nutritional Background.- 2.2. Social and Economic Background of PEM.- 2.3. Prevalence of PEM.- 3. Prevention and Treatment.- 3.1. Primary Prevention.- 3.2. Secondary Prevention.- 3.3. Tertiary Prevention.- 4. References.- 10 The Young Child: Obesity.- 1. Prevalence.- 1.1. Infancy.- 1.2. Childhood and Adolescence.- 2. Natural History.- 2.1. Infancy.- 2.2. Childhood.- 3. Etiology.- 3.1. Genetic Factors.- 3.2. Energy Intake.- 3.3. Energy Output.- 3.4. Metabolic Factors.- 3.5. Emotional Factors.- 4. Effects.- 4.1. Growth and Puberty.- 4.2. Metabolic Effects.- 4.3. Cardiorespiratory Effects.- 4.4. Emotional Effects.- 4.5. Adipose Tissue Cellularity.- 5. Treatment.- 5.1. Diet.- 5.2. Physical Activity.- 5.3. Psychiatric Treatment.- 6. Prevention.- 6.1. Prenatal Period.- 6.2. Infancy.- 6.3. Childhood.- 6.4. Adolescence.- 7. References.- 11 The Adolescent.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Secular Trends in Growth.- 3. Menarche, Nutrition, and Growth.- 4. Energy.- 5. Protein.- 6. Vitamins and Minerals.- 6.1. Vitamin A.- 6.2. Vitamin D.- 6.3. Ascorbic Acid.- 6.4. Folacin.- 6.5. Vitamin B12.- 6.6. Niacin, Riboflavin, and Thiamine.- 6.7. Vitamin B6.- 6.8. Minerals.- 7. Anemia.- 7.1. Iron Deficiency Anemia.- 7.2. Megaloblastic Anemia.- 8. Pregnancy.- 9. Obesity.- 10. References.- 12 The Adult.- 1. Adulthood-Stabilization or Initial Period of Regression.- 2. Nutrition and Ecosensitivity.- 2.1. Feeding, Ecosensitivity, and Nutritional Status.- 2.2. Differences in Sex-Dependent Properties as a Criterion of Nutritional Status in Adults.- 3. Rate of Regressive Changes, and Living Conditions (Including Nutrition).- 4. The Effects of Nutrition in Adults.- 5. Nutritional Requirements in Adulthood.- 6. Assessment of Nutritional Status.- 7. References.- III ? Growth Monitoring and Nutritional Assessment.- 13 Optimal Nutritional Assessment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Optimizing Length and Weight.- 3. Optimal Circumferences.- 4. The Optimal Use of Fatfolds.- 5. Optimal Use of Radiographic Information.- 6. Direct Photon Absorptiometry.- 7. Optimizing Food Intake Data.- 8. Optimizing Hematologic Determinations.- 9. Serum and Urinary Vitamins.- 10. Screening the At-Risk Group.- 11. Optimal, Necessary Follow-Up Studies.- 12. Optimal Steps in Data Recording, Reduction, and Analysis.- 13. Optimal Assessment.- 14. References.- 14 Reference Data.- 1. Uses For Reference Data.- 2. Meaning of Reference Data.- 3. Criteria for Ideal Reference Data.- 4. International Reference Data.- 5. Locally Constructed Reference Standards.- 6. Genetic versus Environmental Influence on and the Use of Reference Data.- 7. Other Factors Affecting Reference Data.- 8. "Best" Available Height and Weight Reference Data for International Comparisons.- 9. Reference Data for Skinfold (Subcutaneous Fat).- 10. Arm Circumference Reference Data.- 11. Reference Data for Head Circumference.- 12. Classification of PCM and Overnutrition.- 13. Commonly Used Classification Systems.- 13.1. Weight for Age.- 13.2. Combination of Weight for Age and Presence of Edema.- 13.3. Weight for Height or Length.- 13.4. Weight for Height Combined with Height for Age.- 14. Other Methods of Classification of PCM and Overnutrition.- 14.1. Arm Circumference.- 14.2. QUAC Stick: Arm Circumference for Height.- 14.3. Sk…