There is a significant number of nuclear and radiological sources in Central Asia, which have contributed, are still contributing, or have the potential to contribute to radioactive contamination in the future. Key sources and contaminated sites of concern are: The nuclear weapons tests performed at the Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS) in Kazakhstan during 19491989. A total of 456 nuclear weapons tests have been perf- med in the atmosphere (86), above and at ground surface (30) and underground (340) accompanied by radioactive plumes reaching far out of the test site. Safety trials at STS, where radioactive sources were spread by conventional explosives. Peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) within STS and outside STS in Kazakhstan, producing crater lakes (e.g., Tel'kem I and Tel'kem II), waste storage facilities (e.g., LIRA) etc. Technologically enhanced levels of naturally occurring radionuclides (TENORM) due to U mining and tailing. As a legacy of the cold war and the nuclear weapon p- gramme in the former USSR, thousands of square kilometers in the Central Asia co- tries are contaminated. Large amounts of scale from the oil and gas industries contain sufficient amounts of TENORM. Nuclear reactors, to be decommissioned or still in operation. Storage of spent nuclear fuel and other radioactive wastes. In the characterization of nuclear risks, the risks are estimated by integrating the results of the hazard identification, the effects assessment and the exposure assessment.

Insights into uranium production sites and nuclear explosion testing sites in Former Soviet Union countries Unique information on contamination of NORM and other radionuclides in Central Asia and Caucasus area Highlighting the need of radiation protection in areas contaminated by uranium exploitation in Central Asia and Caucasus area

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National Nuclear Centre Solving Radiation Safety Problems in Kazakhstan.- Radioactive Particles Released from Different Nuclear Sources: With Focus on Nuclear Weapons Tests.- Phenomenology of Underground Nuclear Explosions in Rock Salt.- Radiation and Hydro-Chemical Investigation and Monitoring of Transboundary Rivers of Kazakhstan.- Tritium in Streams, Well Waters and Atomic Lakes at the Semi-Palatinsk Nuclear Test Site: Present Status And Future Perspectives.- Safe Management of Residues from Former Uranium Mining and Milling Activities in Central Asian IAEA Regional Technical Cooperation Project.- Rehabilitation of Uranium Mines in Northern Tajikistan.- A Rational Approach to Bridging the Nuclear Technology Usage and Nuclear Education Gap.- Strontium-90 Contamination Within the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site: Results of Semirad1 and Semirad2 Projects Contamination Levels And Projected Doses to Local Populations.- The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management: An Instrument to Achieve a Global Safety.- Reduction of Risks from Lira Underground Nuclear Facilities at Karachaganak Oil-and-Gas Complex.- The Net Effect of the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant on the Environment and Population Compared to the Background From Global Radioactive Fallout.- Assessment of Risks and Possible Ecological and Economic Damages from Large-Scale Natural and Man-Induced Catastrophes in Ecology-Hazard Regions of Central Asia and the Caucasus.- Distribution of Natural and Technogenic Radioactivity in Soil Samples from Foothill and Mountain Areas in Central Tajikistan.- Quantitative Assessment of the Man-Induced Uranium in the Tail Disposal of Kara-Balta Mining Plant.- Study of the 222Rn Distribution in Air Above the TailDisposal Site at KBMP (Kyrgyz Republic) and Its Possible Transfer to Adjacent Territories.- Study of Transborder Contamination of the Syr-Darya and Amu Darya Rivers and Their Inflows.- The Navruz Project: Cooperative, Transboundary Monitoring, Data Sharing and Modeling of Water Resources in Central Asia.- Several Approaches to the Solution of Water Contamination Problems in Transboundary Rivers Crossing the Territory of Armenia.- Study of the Ecological State of Rivers Kura, Araks and Samur on Azerbaijan Territory.- Ecological Considerations Related to Uranium Exploration and Production.- Joint Norwegian and Kazakh Fieldwork in Kurday Mining Site, Kazakhstan, 2006.