Carbon has always been a unique and intriguing material from a funda­ mental standpoint and, at the same time, a material with many technological uses. Carbon-based materials, diamond, graphite and their many deriva­ tives, have attracted much attention in recent years for many reasons. Ion implantation, which has proven to be most useful in modifying the near­ surface properties of many kinds of materials, in particular semiconductors, has also been applied to carbon-based materials. This has yielded, mainly in the last decade, many scientifically interesting and technologically impor­ tant results. Reports on these studies have been published in a wide variety of journals and topical conferences, which often have little disciplinary overlap, and which often address very different audiences. The need for a review to cover in an integrated way the various diverse aspects of the field has become increasingly obvious. Such a review should allow the reader to get an overview of the research that has been done thus far, to gain an ap­ preciation of the common features in the response of the various carbon to ion impact, and to become aware of current research oppor­ allotropes tunities and unresolved questions waiting to be addressed. Realizing this, and having ourselves both contributed to the field, we decided to write a review paper summarizing the experimental and theoretical status of ion­ implantation into diamond, graphite and related materials.

Inhalt

1. Introduction.- 2. Carbon Materials: Graphite, Diamond and Others.- 2.1 Structure and Materials.- 2.1.1 Graphite.- 2.1.2 Graphite-Related Materials.- 2.1.3 Carbon Fibers.- 2.1.4 Glassy Carbon.- 2.1.5 Graphite Intercalation Compounds.- 2.1.6 Diamond.- 2.1.7 CVD Diamond Films.- 2.1.8 Diamond-Like Carbon Films.- 2.2 Properties of Graphite.- 2.2.1 Lattice Properties.- 2.2.2 Electronic and Transport Properties.- 2.2.3 Optical Properties.- 2.2.4 Thermal Properties.- 2.2.5 Mechanical Properties.- 2.3 Properties of Diamond.- 2.3.1 Lattice Properties.- 2.3.2 Electronic and Transport Properties.- 2.3.3 Optical Properties.- 2.3.4 Thermal Properties.- 2.3.5 Mechanical Properties.- 2.3.6 Chemical Properties.- 3. Ion Implantation.- 3.1 Energy Loss Mechanisms.- 3.2 Parameters of Implantation.- 3.2.1 Energy of Implantation.- 3.2.2 Implantation Range.- 3.2.3 Implantation Fluence (Dose) and Beam Current (Dose Rate).- 3.3 Radiation Damage.- 3.4 Energy Loss Simulations.- 4. Ion Beam Analysis Techniques.- 4.1 Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy.- 4.2 Nuclear Reaction Analysis.- 4.3 Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE).- 4.4 Channeling.- 4.5 Elastic Recoil Detection (ERD).- 4.6 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS).- 4.7 Channeling Studies in Graphite-Based Materials.- 4.8 Stoichiometric Characterization of GICs by RBS.- 4.9 Ion Channeling in GICs.- 5. Other Characterization Techniques.- 5.1 Raman Spectroscopy.- 5.2 Other Optical and Magneto-Optical Techniques.- 5.3 Electron Microscopies and Spectroscopies.- 5.4 X-Ray-Related Characterization Techniques.- 5.5 Electronic Transport Measurements.- 5.6 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR).- 5.7 Hyperfine Interactions.- 5.7.1 Mössbauer Spectroscopy.- 5.7.2 Perturbed Angular Correlations (PAC).- 5.8 Mechanical Properties.- 6. Implantation-Induced Modifications to Graphite.- 6.1 Lattice Damage.- 6.2 Regrowth of Ion-Implanted Graphite.- 6.3 Structural Modification.- 6.4 Modification of the Electronic Structure and Transport Properties.- 6.5 Modification of Mechanical Properties.- 6.6 Implantation with Ferromagnetic Ions.- 6.7 Implantation-Enhanced Intercalation.- 6.8 Implantation with Hydrogen and Deuterium.- 7. Implantation-Induced Modifications to Graphite-Related Materials.- 7.1 Glassy Carbon.- 7.2 Carbon Fibers.- 7.3 Disordered Graphite.- 7.4 Carbon-Based Polymers.- 8. Implantation-Induced Modifications to Diamond.- 8.1 Structural Modifications and Damage-Related Electrical Conductivity.- 8.2 Volume Expansion.- 8.3 Lattice Damage.- 8.4 Damage Annealing and Implantations at Elevated Temperatures.- 8.5 Electrical Doping.- 8.6 Impurity State Identification.- 8.7 Electronic Device Realization.- 8.8 New Materials Synthesis.- 8.9 Improving Mechanical Properties.- 9. Implantation-Induced Modifications to Diamond-Related Materials.- 9.1 Diamond-Like Carbon (a-C:H) Films.- 9.1.1 DC Conductivity.- 9.1.2 Optical Characterization.- 9.1.3 Structural Modifications and Hydrogen Loss.- 9.1.4 Attempts to Dope a-C:H by Ion-Implantation.- 9.1.5 Discussion of Implantation-Induced Effects in DLC.- 9.2 Diamond Films.- 10. Concluding Remarks.- References.