We shall limit our observations to the conditions in natural ecosystems, since it would be beyond the scope of this book to embark upon a consideration of secondary, man-made ecosystems. 2. Classification of the Geo-biosphere into Zonobiomes The biosphere is the thin layer of the earth's surface to which the phenomena connected with living matter are confined. On land, this comprises the lowest layer of the atmosphere permanently inhabited by living organisms and into which plants extend, as well as the root-containing portion of the lithosphere, which we term the soil. Living organisms are also found in all bodies of water, to the very depths of the oceans. In a watery medium, however, cycling of material is achieved by means other than those on land, and the organisms (plankton) are so different that aquatic ecosystems have to be dealt with separately. The biosphere is therefore subdivided into (a) the geo-biosphere comprising terrestrial ecosystems, and (b) the hydro-biosphere, comprising aquatic ecosystems, which is the field of hydrobiologists (oceanographers and limnologists) . Our studies are confined to the geo-biosphere (Walter 1976), which constitutes the habitat of man and is, therefore, of special interest. The prevailing climate, being the primary independent factor in the environment, can be used as a basis for further subdivision of the geo-biosphere since the formation of soil and type of vegetation are dependent upon it (see p. 3), and it has not yet been substantially influenced by man.

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Introduction: The Classification of Ecological Systems.- 1. The Aims of Ecology.- 2. Classification of the Geo-biosphere into Zonobiomes.- 3. Zonoecotones.- 4. Orobiomes.- 5. Pedobiomes.- 6. Biomes.- 7. The Nature and Structure of Ecosystems.- 8. Special Material Cycles in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Role Played by Fire.- 9. Smaller Units of Ecological Systems: Biogeocenes and Synusiae.- 10. Diagrammatic Representation of the Hierarchy of Ecological Units..- General Section.- 1. The Historical Factor.- 2. Climate and Its Representation (Climate Diagrams, Homoclimes, and Climate-Diagram Maps).- 3. Environment and Competition.- 4. Ecotypes and the Law of Change of Biotope and Relative Constancy of Habitat. Extrazonal Vegetation.- 5. Poikilohydric and Homeohydric Plants and Halophytes.- Special Section.- I Zonobiome of the Equatorial Humid Diurnal Climate with Evergreen Tropical Rain Forest.- 1. Typical Climate.- 2. Soils and Pedobiomes.- 3. Vegetation.- 4. Anomalies in the Equatorial Zone.- 5. Orobiome I -Tropical Mountains with a Diurnal Climate.- 6. The Biogeocenes of Zonobiome I as Ecosystems.- Zonoecotone I/II - Semievergreen Forest.- II Zonobiome of the Humido-Arid Tropical Summer-Rain Region with Deciduous Forests.- 1. General.- 2. Zonal Vegetation.- 3. Savannas.- 4. Parkland.- 5. Some of the Larger Savanna Regions.- 6. Ecosystem Research.- 7. Tropical Hydrobiomes in Zonobiomes I and II.- 8. Mangroves as Halohelobiomes in Zonobiomes I and II.- 9. Shore Formations - Psammobiomes.- 10. Orobiome II - Tropical Mountains with an Annual Temperature Periodicity.- Zonoecotone II/III - Climatic Savannas.- III Zonobiome of the Subtropical Arido Climate with Deserts.- 1. Climatic Subzonobiomes.- 2. The Soils and Their Water Content.- 3. The Water Supply of Desert Plants.- 4. Ecological Types of Desert Plants.- 5. Salt Soils-Halobiomes.- 6. The Salt Economy of Halophytes.- 7. Desert Vegetation of the Various Floristic Realms.- 8. Adaptations to Water Stress from the Cybernetic Point of View.- 9. The Productivity of Desert Vegetation.- 10. Orobiome III-Desert Mountains of the Subtropics.- 11. Biome of the Namib Fog Desert.- Zonoecotone III/IV - Semidesert.- IV Zonobiome of the Winter-Rain Region with an Arid-Humid Climate and Sclerophyllic Woodlands.- 1. General.- 2. Biome Group of the Mediterranean Region.- 3. The Significance of Sclerophylly in Competition.- 4. Mediterranean Orobiome.- 5. Climate and Vegetation of the Canary Islands.- 6. Arid Mediterranean Subzonobiome.- 7. Biome Group of the Californian Region and Neighboring Country.- 8. Biome Group of the Central Chilean Winter-Rain Region with Zonoecotones.- 9. Biome Group of the South African Capeland.- 10. Biome Group of Southwestern and South Australia with Winter Rain..- 11. The Historical Development of Zonobiome IV and Its Relationship to Zonobiome V.- V Zonobiome of the Warm-Temperate Humid Climate.- 1. General.- 2. Humid Subzonobiomes on the East Coasts of the Continents.- 3. Biome of the Eucalyptus-Nothofagus Forests of Southeastern Australia and Tasmania.- 4. Warm-Temperate Biome of New Zealand.- VI Zonobiome of the Temperate-Nemoral Climate.- 1. Leaf Shedding as an Adaptation to the Cold Winter.- 2. Distribution of Zonobiome VI.- 3. Atlantic Heath Regions.- 4. Deciduous Forests as Ecosystems (Biogeocenes).- 5. The Effect of the Cold Winter Period on Plants of the Nemoral Zone..- 6. Orobiome VI-The Northern Alps.- Zonoecotone VI/VII - Forest-Steppe.- VII Zonobiome of the Arid-Temperature Climate.- 1. Climate.- 2. Soils of the East European Steppe Zone.- 3. Meadow-Steppes on Thick Chernozem and the Feather Grass Steppes.- 4. North American Prairie.- 5. Ecophysiology of the Steppe and Prairie Species.- 6. Asiatic Steppes.- 7. Animal Life of the Steppe.- 8. Grass Steppes of the Southern Hemisphere.- 9. Subzonoecotone of the Semidesert.- 10. Subzonobiome of the Middle Asiatic Deserts.- 11. Biome of the Karakum Desert.- 12. Orobiome VII(rIII) in Middle Asia.- 13. Subzonobiome of the Central Asiatic Deserts.- 14. Subzonobiome of the Cold High-Plateau Deserts of Tibet and Pamir..- Zonoecotone VIII/XI - Boreonemoral Zone.- VIII Zonobiome of the Cold-Temperate Boreal Climate.- 1. Climate and Coniferous Species of the Boreal Zone.- 2. Biogeocene Complexes of the European Boreal-Forest Zone.- 3. The Coniferous Forest as a Biogeocene.- 4. The Extreme Continental Larch Forests of Eastern Siberia with Thermokarst Formations.- 5. Orobiome VIII-Mountain Tundra.- 6. Mires of the Boreal Zone (Peinohelobiomes).- 7. The Ecology of Raised Bogs.- 8. The Western Siberian Lowlands - the Largest Bog Region of the Earth.- Zonoecotone VII/IX - Forest Tundra.- IX Zonobiome of the Arctic Tundra Climate.- 1. Climate and Vegetation of the Tundra.- 2. Ecophysiological Investigations.- 3. Animal Life in the Arctic Tundra.- 4. The Cold Arctic Desert - Solifluction.- 5. Antarctic and Subantarctic Islands.- Summary.- Phytomass and Primary Production of the Various Vegetational Zones and of the Entire Biosphere.- Conclusion from an Ecological Point of View.- 1. The Population Explosion in the Developing Countries.- 2. Excessive Technological Developments in the Industrial Countries.- References.