In a world of increasing atmospheric CO2, there is intensified interest in the ecophysiology of photosynthesis and increasing attention is being given to carbon exchange and storage in natural ecosystems. We need to know how much photosynthesis of terrestrial and aquatic vegetation will change as global CO2 increases. Are there major ecosystems, such as the boreal forests, which may become important sinks of CO2 and slow down the effects of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on climate? Will the composition of the vegetation change as a result of CO2 increase?
This volume reviews the progress which has been made in understanding photosynthesis in the past few decades at several levels of integration from the molecular level to canopy, ecosystem and global scales.

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A: Molecular and Physiological Control and Limitations.- 1 Dynamics in Photosystem II Structure and Function.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Function of Photosystem II.- 1.3 Structure of Photosystem II.- 1.4 Dynamics in the D1 Protein in Rapid Turnover and Stress-Enhanced Photoinhibition.- 1.5 Photoinhibition and Environmental Stress.- 1.6 Regulation of Photosystem II by Phosphorylation.- 1.7 Conclusions.- References.- 2 Regulation of Photosynthetic Light Energy Capture, Conversion, and Dissipation in Leaves of Higher Plants.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 The Concept of Excess Photon Flux Density.- 2.3 Regulation of Light Interception.- 2.3.1 Changes in Leaf Orientation.- 2.3.2 Changes in Leaf Reflectance.- 2.3.3 Chloroplast Movements.- 2.3.4 Changes in Chlorophyll Content and Photosynthetic Capacity.- 2.4 Regulation of Energy Dissipation.- 2.4.1 Dissipation in Metabolic Processes.- 2.4.2 Efficiency of Photochemical Energy Conversion and Extent of Nonradiative Energy Dissipation.- 2.4.3 Nonradiative Energy Dissipation and the Xanthophyll Cycle.- 2.4.4 Mechanism of Nonradiative Dissipation.- 2.5 Conclusions.- References.- 3 Chlorophyll Fluorescence as a Nonintrusive Indicator for Rapid Assessment of In Vivo Photosynthesis.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Indicator Function of Chlorophyll Fluorescence.- 3.3 Rapid Fluorescence Induction Kinetics.- 3.4 Slow Fluorescence Induction Kinetics and Fluorescence Quenching Under Steady-State Conditions.- 3.5 The Saturation Pulse Method.- 3.6 Quantum Yield and Rate Determination by Fluorescence Measurements.- 3.7 Fluorescence as an Indicator of Nonassimilatory Electron Flow.- 3.8 In Situ Measurements of ?F/Fm? and of Relative Electron Transport Rate.- 3.9 Yield Limitation and Excessive Photon Flux Density.- 3.10 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Higher Plant Respiration and Its Relationships to Photosynthesis.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Pathways and Controls of Respiration.- 4.2.1 Unique Properties of Plant Respiration and Mitochondrial Metabolism.- 4.2.2 Control of Respiration Rate.- 4.2.3 Energy Conservation During Plant Respiration.- 4.2.4 Respiration Rate and Carbohydrate Level.- 4.3 Respiration in Photosynthesizing Leaves.- 4.4 Photorespiration and Mitochondrial Metabolism.- 4.4.1 Oxidation of Photorespiratory NADH by the Respiratory Chain.- 4.4.2 Oxidation of Photorespiratory NADH via Substrate Shuttles.- 4.5 Daytime Photosynthesis and Nighttime Respiration.- 4.5.1 Light Level.- 4.5.2 CO2 Concentration.- 4.6 Photosynthesis and Root Respiration.- 4.7 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Apoplastic and Symplastic Proton Concentrations and Their Significance for Metabolism.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Definitions.- 5.2.1 The pH Concept.- 5.2.2 The Buffer Concept.- 5.2.3 Techniques to Determine Intra- and Intercellular pH.- 5.3 Cellular pH.- 5.3.1 The Apoplastic pH.- 5.3.2 The Symplastic pH.- 5.4 Conclusions.- References.- 6 The Significance of Assimilatory Starch for Growth in Arabidopsis thaliana Wild-Type and Starchless Mutants.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 The Metabolic Pathway of Assimilatory Starch Formation and the Use of Mutants to Circumvent Chloroplast Starch Formation.- 6.3 The Diurnal Starch Turnover.- 6.4 Significance of Leaf Starch for Growth.- 6.4.1 Effects of Leaf Starch on Biomass Formation.- 6.4.2 Effects of Leaf Starch on Regulation of Shoot/Root Ratios.- 6.5 The Carbon Balance.- 6.6 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Photosynthesis, Storage, and Allocation.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 The Impact of Photosynthesis on Growth, Storage, and Biomass Allocation in Transgenic Tobacco.- 7.2.1 Photosynthesis and Growth.- 7.2.2 Photosynthesis and Biomass Allocation.- 7.2.3 Carbon and Nitrogen Storage in Relation to Photosynthesis.- 7.2.4 The Tobacco System: Conclusions.- 7.3 Allocation in Relation to Shoot and Root Activity.- 7.3.1 Resource, Growth, and Allocation.- 7.3.2 Photosynthesis, Specific Absorption Rate, and Allocation.- 7.3.3 The Radish System: Conclusions.- 7.4 Storage as Related to Resource Availability.- 7.5 Conclusions.- References.- 8 Gas Exchange and Growth.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 How Plants Grow.- 8.3 Photosynthesis and Growth Rates.- 8.4 The Importance of Allocation.- 8.5 Do Growth Rates Influence Carbon Assimilation?.- 8.6 Light Interception by Canopies and Plant Productivity.- 8.7 Phenology and Rates of Growth and Photosynthesis.- 8.8 Environmental Stresses Change the Relationship Between Photosynthesis and Growth.- 8.8.1 Water Deficits.- 8.8.2 Nitrogen Abundance.- 8.8.3 Temperature Effects.- 8.9 Conclusions.- Appendix: List of Symbols and Definitions.- References.- B: Responses of Photosynthesis to Environmental Factors.- 9 Internal Coordination of Plant Responses to Drought and Evaporational Demand.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Environmental and Plant-Internal Influences on Transpiration.- 9.3 Root-Leaf Signals Under Moisture Shortage Contribute to Drought Avoidance Responses of Leaves.- 9.4 Leaf Anatomy, Canopy Structure, and Stomatal Function.- 9.5 Xylem Conductivity and Leaf Conductance.- 9.6 Conclusions.- References.- 10 As to the Mode of Action of the Guard Cells in Dry Air.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Two Seminal Experiments.- 10.3 Some Relevant Observations.- 10.3.1 On Stomatal Mechanics.- 10.3.2 Signals and Responses.- 10.3.3 Hydrology of the Epidermis.- 10.4 Hypothesis.- 10.4.1 Feedback.- 10.4.2 Of Bubbles and Balloons.- 10.4.3 Piers and Vaults.- 10.5 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Direct Observations of Stomatal Movements.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 The Methodical Approach.- 11.3 General Aspects.- 11.4 Stomatal Responses.- 11.4.1 Air-Humidity Response.- 11.4.2 Response to Changing CO2 Concentrations of the Air.- 11.4.3 Response to Heat.- 11.4.4 The Transient Phase and Other Pecularities of the Stomatal Response.- 11.5 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Carbon Gain in Relation to Water Use: Photosynthesis in Mangroves.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Water Relations: Why Be Conservative?.- 12.3 Implications of Conservative Water Use for Plant Function.- 12.4 Implications of Conservative Water Use for Display and Properties of Leaves.- 12.5 Coping with Excessive Light: Another By-Product of Conservative Water Use.- 12.6 Into the Future: Coping with Global Increase In Atmospheric CO2 Concentration.- References.- 13 Photosynthesis as a Tool for Indicating Temperature Stress Events.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Development of Temperature Stress and Characteristic Responses of Photosynthesis.- 13.3 Use of Photosynthetic Responses for Determining Heat Tolerance.- 13.4. Photosynthetic Function as a Criterion for Screening Chilling Susceptibility.- 13.5 Assay and Analysis of Freezing Events by Monitoring Photosynthesis.- 13.6 Conclusions.- References.- 14 Air Pollution, Photosynthesis and Forest Decline: Interactions and Consequences.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Sites of Interaction of Air Pollutants with Plants.- 14.3 The Magnitude of Fluxes into Leaves.- 14.4 Toxicity.- 14.5 Detoxification.- 14.5.1 The Path of Air Pollutants.- 14.5.2 The Fate of Nitrogen Oxides.- 14.5.3 The Fate of Ozone.- 14.5.4 The Fate of SO2.- 14.5.5 Acid-Dependent Cation Requirements.- 14.5.6 Interactions Between Different Air Pollutants.- 14.5.7 Interactions with Climatic Conditions.- 14.6 Tolerance Limi…