Essential Oils in Food Processing: Chemistry, Safety and Applications

A guide to the use of essential oils in food, including information on their composition, extraction methods, and their antioxidant and antimicrobial applications

Consumers' food preferences are moving away from synthetic additives and preservatives and there is an increase demand for convenient packaged foods with long shelf lives. The use of essential oils fills the need for more natural preservativesto extend the shelf-life and maintaining the safety of foods. Essential Oils in Food Processing offers researchers in food science a guide to the chemistry, safety and applications of these easily accessible and eco-friendly substances.

The text offers a review of essential oils components, history, source and their application in foods and explores common and new extraction methods of essential oils from herbs and spices. The authors show how to determine the chemical composition of essential oils as well as an explanation of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of these oils in foods. This resource also delves into the effect of essential oils on food flavor and explores the interaction of essential oils and food components. Essential Oils in Food Processing offers a:

• Handbook of the use of essential oils in food, including their composition, extraction methods and their antioxidant and antimicrobial applications

• Guide that shows how essential oils can be used to extend the shelf life of food products whilst meeting consumer demand for "natural" products

• Review of the use of essential oils as natural flavour ingredients

• Summary of relevant food regulations as pertaining to essential oils

Academic researchers in food science, R&D scientists, and educators and advanced students in food science and nutrition can tap into the most recent findings and basic understanding of the chemistry, application, and safe us of essential oils in food processing.

Auteur

Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Department of Food Science and Technology,
College of Agriculture, Fasa University, Fasa, Iran.

Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Anderson de Souza Sant'Ana, Department of Food science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), São Paulo, Brazil.

Contenu

List of Contributors xi

Acknowledgements xv

Introduction xvii

**1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics 1
**M.C.T. Duarte, R. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils 1

1.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants 8

1.1.3 Pathogens Attack 8

1.1.4 Environmental Factors 9

1.1.5 Hydric Stress 12

1.1.6 Plant Nutrition 13

1.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity 14

1.2 Conclusions 15

References 15

**2 Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and Spices 21
**Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf Greiner and Farid Chemat

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Conventional Methods of Extraction 22

2.2.1 Hydrodistillation 22

2.2.2 Steam Distillation 27

2.2.3 Solvent Extraction 28

2.3 Novel Extraction Methods 32

2.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 32

2.3.2 UltrasoundAssisted Extraction 34

2.3.2.1 UltrasoundAssisted Solvent Extraction 34

2.3.2.2 Combination of UAE with Other Techniques 35

2.3.3 OhmicAssisted Hydrodistillation 37

2.3.4 Pulsed ElectricalAssisted Extraction 38

2.3.5 MicrowaveAssisted Extraction 40

2.3.5.1 Vacuum Microwave Hydrodistillation (VWHD) 40

2.3.5.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) 42

2.3.5.3 SolventFree Microwave Extraction (SFME) 43

2.4 Conclusions 44

Acknowledgements 44

References 45

**3 Identification of Essential Oil Components 57
**Elena E. Stashenko and Jairo Rene Martinez

3.1 Introduction 57

3.2 Essential Oils as Multicomponent Complex Mixtures 59

3.2.1 Classification and Main Components 59

3.2.2 Compositional Variation and Dependence on Internal and External Factors 61

3.2.3 Essential Oil Isolation and Preparation for Chromatographic Analysis 62

3.3 Essential Oil Component Identification 65

3.3.1 Gas Chromatography 67

3.3.1.1 Columns 70

3.3.1.2 Injection Systems 71

3.3.1.3 Detection Systems 72

3.3.2 Retention Indices 77

3.3.3 Mass Spectrometry 82

3.3.3.1 Ionisation Processes 83

3.3.3.2 Ion Types and Fragmentation Patterns 84

3.3.3.3 Mass Spectra Interpretation 85

3.3.4 Hyphenated Techniques 95

3.4 GCMS 95

3.4.1 Tandem Methods 103

3.4.2 Multidimensional and Comprehensive Techniques 106

3.5 Isolation of Individual Components or Enriched Fractions 110

3.6 Conclusions 111

References 112

**4 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 119
**Hassan Eslahi, Nafiseh Fahimi and Ali Reza Sardarian

4.1 Introduction 119

4.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 124

4.2.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 124

4.2.2 Aromatic Compounds 127

4.3 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Essential Oils 127

4.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 130

4.3.2 Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpenoids 147

4.3.3 Aromatic Compounds 154

4.4 Effective Factors on the Composition of Essential Oils 155

References 157

5 Basic Structure, Nomenclature, Classification and Properties of Organic Compounds of Essential Oil 173
Iuliana Vintil

5.1 Introduction 173

5.1.1 Antioxidant Properties 177

5.1.1.1 DPPH Assay 178

5.1.1.2 The Bleaching Assay 181

5.1.2 AntiMicrobial and AntiViral Activity 182

5.1.3 AntiAflatoxigenic Activity 182

5.1.4 AntiInflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, ProKinetic and ProImmunity Activity (Pharmacologic Properties) 182

5.1.5 AntiCarcinogenic and Cytotoxicity Activity 183 5.2 Final</p&gt...