Complex Biological Systems

Written and edited by some of the most well-respected authors in the area of the adaptation of plants and animals to climate change, this groundbreaking new work is an extremely important scientific contribution to the study of global warming.

Global climate change is one of the most serious and pressing issues facing our planet. Rather than a "silver bullet" or a single study that solves it, the study of global climate change is like a beach, with each contribution a grain of sand, gathered together as a whole to create a big picture, moving the science forward. This new groundbreaking study focuses on the adaptation and tolerance of plants and animal life to the harsh conditions brought on by climate change or global warming. Using the papers collected here, scientists can better understand global climate change, its causes, results, and, ultimately, the future of life on our planet.

The first section lays out a methodology and conceptual direction of the work as a whole, covering the modeling, approaches, and the impacts studied throughout the book. The second section focuses on certain hypotheses laid out by the authors regarding how plants and animal life can adapt and survive in extreme environments. The third section compiles a series of ecological experiments and their conclusions, and a final section is dedicated to previous scientific breakthroughs in this field and the scientists who made them.

Whether for the scientist in the field, the student, or as a reference, this groundbreaking new work is a must-have. Focusing on a small part of the global climate change "beach," this "grain of sand" is an extremely important contribution to the scientific literature and a step forward in understanding the problems and potentialities of the issue.

Auteur

Irina R. Fomina, PhD, is a Leading Researcher of Ecology and Physiology with the Russian Academy of Sciences, an assistant professor at the Lomonosov Moscow State University, and Vice President of Education at Biosphere Systems International Foundation in Tucson, Arizona. Dr. Fomina has done extensive research in the field of plants??? tolerance to global climate change and has published a monograph and dozens of articles and chapters in peer-reviewed journals and books. Karl Y. Biel, PhD, Dr. Sci., Professor, is a Leading Researcher of Ecology and Physiology with the Russian Academy of Sciences and President of Education at Biosphere Systems International Foundation in Tucson, Arizone. Professor Biel has over 20 years of experience in the USA conducting research at UCLA, the University of Wyoming, and Columbia University. He has participated in many international terrestrial, aquatic and marine expeditions, and, during his scientific career, he has published several books and over 300 articles in peer-reviewed journals. Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky, PhD, Dr. Sci., Professor, is a Leading Researcher at the Russian Academy of Sciences and a professor in the Department of Ecology at the Siberian Federal University in Russia. Dr. Soukhovolsky is an editorial board member of the journals, Lesovedenye (Russian Forest Science) and Conifers of Boreal Zone. During his scientific career he published more than 20 books and over 400 articles in peer-reviewed journals.

Contenu
Preface xvii

Abstract xix

Contributing Authors xxi

Modeling and Approaches 1

**1 Critical Impacts on Complex Biological and Ecological Systems: Basic Principles of Modeling 3
**Rem G. Khlebopros, Vladislav G. Soukhovolsky

1.1 Complex Ecological Systems: The Principle of Decomposition, Taking into Account the Characteristic Times of Components 5

1.2 Analysis of Critical Impacts on Complex Systems and Extreme Principles of Modeling 12

1.2.1 Meta-Models of Phase Transitions for Describing Critical Events in Complex Systems 13

1.2.2 A Model of Outbreak as Second-Order Phase Transition 14

1.2.3 The Effect of Modifying Factors on the Development of an Outbreak 21

1.2.4 The Impact of Chemical Compounds on Biological Objects 23

References 26

**2 Criticality Concept and Some Principles for Sustainability in Closed Biological Systems and Biospheres 29
**Nicholas P. Yensen, Karl Y. Biel

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 History of Manmade Closed Ecosystems 32

2.3 Classification of Closed Biological Systems 33

2.3.1 Terminology 33

2.3.2 Micro Systems 35

2.3.3 Macro Systems 37

2.3.4 The Term Biosphere 39

2.3.5 Noosphere 40

2.4 The Concept of Criticality 40

2.4.1 The Volume-Criticality Principle 42

2.5 Microbiospheres: Descriptions and Discussion 44

2.5.1 The Ecosphere, a Synthetic Microbiosphere 44

2.6 Bioboxes 45

2.7 Experimental vs. Mathematical Models 45

2.7.1 Retrograde Phylogenetic Extinction 46

2.8 Humanospheres: Examples and Discussion 46

2.8.1 Biotubes 47

2.8.2 Shepelev, BIOS 1, 2, and 3 49

2.8.3 Biosphere 2 Laboratory 51

2.8.4 Closed System Missions 52

2.8.5 Open System Missions 53

2.8.6 The End of Biosphere 2 Laboratory or a New Era for Biosphere 2 Laboratory? 54

2.9 The Earth (Biosphere 1) Description and Discussion 55

2.9.1 Earth, a Sample Size of One 55

2.9.2 Biosphere 1 Properties 55

2.10 Oxygen Flux in Closed Systems 59

2.11 The Future of Closed System Work: Concepts and Strategies 61

2.11.1 Education, Research and Consortium Concepts 61

2.11.2 Ecosystems for Space 62

2.11.3 Closed System Challenges 63

2.12 General Conclusions 63

Abbreviations 64

Literature Cited and Used 64

Appendix I. A Description of Biosphere 2 Laboratory 70

**3 Accelerated Method for Measuring and Predicting Plants' Stress Tolerance 73
**Karl Y. Biel, John N. Nishio

3.1 Introduction 75

3.2 Background 75

3.2.1 Interaction between Anabolism and Catabolism 76

3.2.2 Cooperation between Photosynthesis and Respiration under Stress 78

3.3 How is Stress Tolerance Measured? 79

3.3.1 Testing Possible Artifacts of the Stress Test 81

3.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Chemical Additions on the Oxygen Evolution Stress Assay 84

3.4 Practical Applications 88

3.4.1 Whole Leaf Physiological Responses 90

3.4.2 Effect of Dark and Sodium Nitrate on the Photosynthetic Stress Resistance Index and Photosynthesis in Leaf Slices under Anoxic Conditions 97

3.4.3 Post-Illumination Respiration 98

3.5 Discussion 98

3.6 Perspectives for Application of Method 107

Acknowledgments 109

Abbreviations 110

References 110

Appendix I. Additional Materials and Methods 117

Appendix II. Preliminary Analysis of the Utility of a Novel Stress Resistance Assay on Three Garst Lines of Zea mays, a C4 Plant 118

Results 119

General Conclusion 122

Suggestions 122

Hypotheses 123 **4 The Hypotheses of Halosynthesis, Photoprotection, Soil Remediation via Salt-Conduction, and Potential Medical Benefits 125
***Karl Y. Biel, Nicholas P. Yense...