Chocolate Science and Technology

CHOCOLATE

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

This second edition provides information on recent advances in the science and technology of chocolate manufacture and the entire international cocoa industry. It provides detailed reviews of a wide range of topics, including cocoa production, cocoa and chocolate manufacturing operations, sensory perception of chocolate quality, flavour release and perception, sugar replacement and alternative sweetening solutions in chocolate production, industrial manufacture of sugar-free chocolates and the nutrition and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption.

The topics cover modern cocoa cultivation and production practices with special attention to cocoa bean composition, genotypic variations in the bean, post-harvest pretreatments, fermentation and drying processes and the biochemical basis of these operations. The scientific principles behind industrial chocolate manufacture are outlined, with detailed explanations of the various stages of chocolate manufacturing, including mixing, refining, conching and tempering. Other topics covered include the chemistry of flavour formation and development during cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture; volatile flavour compounds and their characteristics and identification; sensory descriptions and character; and flavour release and perception in chocolate. The nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption and the application of HACCP and other food safety management systems such as ISO 22000 in the chocolate processing industry are also addressed. Additionally, detailed research on the influence of different raw materials and processing operations on the flavour and other quality characteristics of chocolates have been provided, with scope for process optimization and improvement.

The book is intended to be a desk reference for all those engaged in the business of making and using chocolate worldwide; confectionery and chocolate scientists in industry and academia; students and practising food scientists and technologists; nutritionists and other health professionals; and libraries of institutions where agriculture, food science and nutrition are studied and researched.

Auteur

The Author

Emmanuel Ohene Afoakwa, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Ghana

Formerly of Nestlé Product Technology Centre, York, UK

Résumé

This second edition provides information on recent advances in the science and technology of chocolate manufacture and the entire international cocoa industry. It provides detailed review on a wide range of topics including cocoa production, cocoa and chocolate manufacturing operations, sensory perception of chocolate quality, flavour release and perception, sugar replacement and alternative sweetening solutions in chocolate production, industrial manufacture of sugar-free chocolates as well as the nutrition and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption.

The topics cover modern cocoa cultivation and production practices with special attention on cocoa bean composition, genotypic variations in the bean, post-harvest pre-treatments, fermentation and drying processes, and the biochemical basis of these operations. The scientific principles behind industrial chocolate manufacture are outlined with detailed explanations of the various stages of chocolate manufacturing including mixing, refining, conching and tempering. Other topics covered include the chemistry of flavour formation and development during cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture; volatile flavour compounds and their characteristics and identification; sensory descriptions and character; and flavour release and perception in chocolate. The nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption as well as the application of HACCP and other food safety management systems such as ISO 22,000 in the chocolate processing industry are also addressed. Additionally, detailed research on the influence of different raw materials and processing operations on the flavour and other quality characteristics of chocolates have been provided with scope for process optimization and improvement.

The book is intended to be a desk reference for all those engaged in the business of making and using chocolate worldwide; confectionery and chocolate scientists in industry and academia; students and practising food scientists and technologists; nutritionists and other health professionals; and libraries of institutions where agriculture, food science and nutrition is studied and researched.

Contenu

Preface xix

Acknowledgements xxi

About the author xxiii

1 History, origin and taxonomy of cocoa 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 History of cocoa 2

1.3 Taxonomy of cocoa 5

1.4 Morphological and varietal characteristics of cocoa 6

1.4.1 The cocoa plant 6

1.5 Varietal effects on cocoa bean flavour 10

1.6 The concept of this book 15

2 World cocoa production processing and chocolate consumption pattern 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 World production of cocoa 17

2.3 Major changes in world cocoa trade 20

2.4 Cocoa yield in producing countries 22

2.5 World cocoa grindings trends between 20052006 and 20142015 23

2.6 World stocks of cocoa beans 26

2.7 International cocoa price developments 26

2.8 Cocoa processing trends 31

2.9 Cocoa and chocolate consumption 33

2.9.1 Apparent cocoa consumption 33

2.9.2 World chocolate consumption 34

2.9.3 World consumption of chocolate products 35

2.9.4 World consumption of premium chocolate products 38

2.10 Fairtrade cocoa and chocolate in the modern confectionery industry 39

2.10.1 Sustainable fairtrade cocoa production 39

2.10.2 Future of the fairtrade cocoa and confectionery industry 41

2.11 The organic cocoa in chocolate confectionery industry 42

2.11.1 The global organic food industry 42

2.11.2 The organic cocoa industry 43

2.11.3 Consumption patterns of organic cocoa 44

2.11.4 Certification and market for organic cocoa 45

2.12 The changing chocolate market 48

3 Traditional and modern cocoa cultivation practices 49

3.1 Introduction 49

3.2 Environmental requirements for cocoa cultivation 51

3.2.1 Temperature 51

3.2.2 Rainfall 52

3.2.3 Soils and nutrition 52

3.3 Traditional cocoa cultivation practices 53

3.3.1 Growth and propagation 53

3.4 Modern cocoa cultivation practices using vegetative propagation 54

3.5 Establishment and shade 54

3.6 Flowering and pod development 60

3.7 Harvesting of cocoa pods 64

3.8 Pod breaking 67

3.9 The cocoa pod 68

3.10 Good agricultural practices in cocoa cultivation 69

3.10.1 Quality improvement practices 69

3.10.2 Weed control 71

3.10.3 Pruning 71

4 Cocoa diseases and pests and their effects on chocolate quality 73

4.1 Introduction 73

4.2 Major cocoa diseases 73

4.2.1 Cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSVD) 73

4.2.2 Black pod disease 74

4.2.3 Witches broom disease 76

4.3 Cocoa pests 77

4.3.1 Pod borers (capsids cocoa thrips and mealy bugs) 77

4.4 Cocoa crop protection 79

5 Cocoa bean composition and chocolate flavour development 80

5.1 Introduction 80

5.2 Bean composition and flavour precursor formation 81

5.2.1 Physical structure and chemical composition of the cocoa bean 81

5.2.2 Cocoa pulp: the fermentation substrate 83

5.2.3 Polyphenols and chocolate flavour quality 85

5.2.4 Effects of proteins and sugars on flavour precursor formation 85

5.3 Effects of genotype on cocoa bean flavour 87

5.4 Flavour development during post-harvest treatments of cocoa 87

5.4.1 Changes in biochemistry of the bean during flavour precursor formation in cocoa fermentation 87

5.4.2 Microbial succession and enzymatic activities during flavour precursor generation in cocoa fermentation 90

5.4.3 Drying 94

5.5 Conclusion 98

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