Bio-Based Plastics

This book serves as an up-to-date, broad, but concise overview of basic and applied aspects of bio-based plastics, focusing primarily on thermoplastic polymers for material use. Chapters focus on specific classes of bio-based plastics such as polysaccharides, polyesters, polyamides, and polyolefines.

The field of bio-based plastics has developed significantly in the last 10 years and there is increasing pressure on industries to shift existing materials production from petrochemicals to renewables.

Bio-based Plastics presents an up-to-date overview of the basic and applied aspects of bioplastics, focusing primarily on thermoplastic polymers for material use. Emphasizing materials currently in use or with significant potential for future applications, this book looks at the most important biopolymer classes such as polysaccharides, lignin, proteins and polyhydroxyalkanoates as raw materials for bio-based plastics, as well as materials derived from bio-based monomers like lipids, poly(lactic acid), polyesters, polyamides and polyolefines. Detailed consideration is also given to the market and availability of renewable raw materials, the importance of bio-based content and the aspect of biodegradability.

Topics covered include:

• Starch
• Cellulose and cellulose acetate
• Materials based on chitin and chitosan
• Lignin matrix composites from natural resources
• Polyhydroxyalkanoates
• Poly(lactic acid)
• Polyesters, Polyamides and Polyolefins from biomass derived monomers
• Protein-based plastics

Bio-based Plastics is a valuable resource for academic and industrial researchers who are interested in new materials, renewable resources, sustainability and polymerization technology. It will also prove useful for advanced students interested in the development of bio-based products and materials, green and sustainable chemistry, polymer chemistry and materials science.

For more information on the Wiley Series in Renewable Resources, visit www.wiley.com/go/rrs

Autorentext

Editor

Stephan Kabasci
Fraunhofer-Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Germany

Series Editor

Christian Stevens
Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Inhalt

Series Preface xiii Preface xv List of Contributors xvii 1 Bio-Based Plastics - Introduction 1 Stephan Kabasci 1.1 Definition of Bio-Based Plastics 2 1.2 A Brief History of Bio-Based Plastics 3 1.3 Market for Bio-Based Plastics 5 1.4 Scope of the Book 6 2 Starch 9 Catia Bastioli, Paolo Magistrali, and Sebastia Gest? Garcia 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Starch 10 2.3 Starch-Filled Plastics 13 2.4 Structural Starch Modifications 14 2.4.1 Starch Gelatinization and Retrogradation 14 2.4.2 Starch Jet-Cooking 16 2.4.3 Starch Extrusion Cooking 16 2.4.4 Starch Destructurization in Absence of Synthetic Polymers 17 2.4.5 Starch Destructurization in Presence of Synthetic Polymers 19 2.4.6 Additional Information on Starch Complexation 23 2.5 Starch-Based Materials on the Market 27 2.6 Conclusions 28 References 28 3 Cellulose and Cellulose Acetate 35 Johannes Ganster and Hans-Peter Fink 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Raw Materials 36 3.3 Structure 37 3.3.1 Cellulose 37 3.3.2 Cellulose Derivatives 40 3.4 Principles of Cellulose Technology 42 3.4.1 Regenerated Cellulose 43 3.4.2 Organic Cellulose Esters - Cellulose Acetate 46 3.5 Properties and Applications of Cellulose-Based Plastics 52 3.5.1 Fibres 53 3.5.2 Films 54 3.5.3 Moulded Articles 56 3.6 Some Recent Developments 57 3.6.1 Cellulose 57 3.6.2 Cellulose Acetate and Mixed Esters 58 3.7 Conclusion 59 References 59 4 Materials Based on Chitin and Chitosan 63 Marguerite Rinaudo 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Preparation and Characterization of Chitin and Chitosan 64 4.2.1 Chitin: Characteristics and Characterization 64 4.2.2 Chitosan: Preparation and Characterization 66 4.3 Processing of Chitin to Materials and Applications 69 4.3.1 Processing of Chitin and Physical Properties of Materials 69 4.3.2 Applications of Chitin-Based Materials 70 4.4 Chitosan Processing to Materials and Applications 71 4.4.1 Processing of Chitosan 71 4.4.2 Application of Chitosan-Based Materials 74 4.5 Conclusion 77 References 77 5 Lignin Matrix Composites from Natural Resources - ARBOFORMR 89 Helmut N agele, J urgen Pfitzer, Lars Ziegler, Emilia Regina Inone-Kauffmann, Wilhelm Eckl, and Norbert Eisenreich 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Approaches for Plastics Completely Made from Natural Resources 90 5.3 Formulation of Lignin Matrix Composites (ARBOFORM) 92 5.3.1 Lignin 92 5.3.2 Basic Formulations and Processing of ARBOFORM 95 5.3.3 The Influence of the Fibre Content 97 5.4 Chemical Free Lignin from High Pressure Thermo-Hydrolysis (Aquasolv) 100 5.4.1 Near Infrared Spectroscopy of Lignin Types 100 5.4.2 Lignin Extraction by High-Pressure Hydrothermolysis (HPH) 101 5.4.3 Thermoplastic Processing of Aquasolv Lignin 104 5.5 Functionalizing Lignin Matrix Composites 105 5.5.1 Impact Strength 106 5.5.2 Flame Retardancy 106 5.5.3 Electrical Conductivity with Nanoparticles 106 5.5.4 Pyrolysis to Porous Carbonaceous Structures 108 5.6 Injection Moulding of Parts - Case Studies 109 5.6.1 Loudspeaker Boxes 110 5.6.2 Precision Parts 110 5.6.3 Thin Walled and Decorative Gift Boxes and Toys 111 5.6 Acknowledgements 112 References 112 6 Bioplastics from Lipids 117 Stuart Coles 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Definition and Structure of Lipids 117 6.2.1 Fatty Acids 117 6.2.2 Mono-, Di- and Tri-Substituted Glycerols 118 6.2.3 Phospholipids 118 6.2.4 Other Compounds 119 6.3 Sources and Biosynthesis of Lipids 119 6.3.1 Sources of Lipids 119 6.3.2 Biosynthesis of Lipids 120 6.3.3 Composition of Triglycerides 120 6.4 Extraction of Plant Oils, Triglycerides and their Associated Compounds 120 6.4.1 Seed Cleaning and Preparation 121 6.4.2 Seed Pressing 121 6.4.3 Liquid Extraction 121 6.4.4 Post Extraction Processing 122 6.5 Biopolymers from Plant Oils, Triglycerides and Their Associated Compounds 122 6.5.1 Generic Triglycerides 122 6.5.2 Common Manipulations of Triglycerides 123 6.5.3 Soybean Oil-Based Bioplastics 125 6.5.4 Castor Oil-Based Bioplastics 126 6.5.5 Linseed Oil-Based Bioplastics 127 6.5.6 Other Plant Oil-Based Bioplastics 127 6.5.7 Biological Synthesis of Polymers 128 6.6 Applications 128 6.6.1 Mimicking to Reduce R&D Risk 128 6.6.2 Composites 129 6.6.3 Coatings 129 6.6.4 Packaging Materials 130 6.6.5 Foams 130 6.6.6 Biomedical Applications 130 6.6.7 Other Applications 131 6.7 Conclusions 131 References 131 7 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Basics, Production and Applications of Microbial Biopolyesters 137 Martin Koller, Anna Salerno, and Gerhart Braunegg 7.1 Microbial PHA Production, Metabolism, and Structure 137 7.1.1 Occurrence of PHAs 137 7.1.2 In Vivo Characteristics and Biological Role of PHAs 139 7.1.3 Structure and Composition of PHAs 140 7.1.4 Metabolic Aspects 141 7.2 Available Raw Materials for PHA Production 143 7.3 Recovery of PHA from Biomass 144 7.3.1 General Aspects of PHA Recovery 144 7.3.2 Direct Extraction of PHA from Biomass 146 7.3.3 Digestion of the non-PHA Cellular Material 147 7.3.4 Disruption of Cells of Osmophilic Microbes in Hypotonic Medium 148 7.4 Different Types of PHA 149 7.4.1 Short Chain Length vs. Medium Chain Length PHAs 149 7.4.2 Enzymatic Background: PHA Synthases 149 7.5 Global PHA Production 151 7.6 Applications of PHAs 152 7.6.1 General 152 7.6.2 Packaging and Commodity Items 152 7.6.3 Medical Applications 154 7.6.4 Application of the Monomeric Building Blocks 155 7.6.5 Smart Materials 156 7.6.6 Controlled Release of Active Agents 156 7.7 Economic Challenges in the Production of PHAs and Attempts to Overcome Them 156 7.7.1 PHA Production as a Holistic Process 156 7.7.2 Substrates as Economic Factor 156 7.7.3 Downstream Processing 157 7.7.4 Process Design 157 7.7.5 Contemporary Attempts to Enhance PHA Production in Terms of Economics and Product Quality 158 7.8 Process Design…