Sense and Avoid in UAS

There is increasing interest in the potential of UAV (Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle) and MAV (Micro Air Vehicle) technology and their
wide ranging applications including defence missions,
reconnaissance and surveillance, border patrol, disaster zone
assessment and atmospheric research. High investment levels from
the military sector globally is driving research and development
and increasing the viability of autonomous platforms as
replacements for the remotely piloted vehicles more commonly in
use.

UAV/UAS pose a number of new challenges, with the autonomy and
in particular collision avoidance, detect and avoid, or sense and
avoid, as the most challenging one, involving both regulatory and
technical issues.

Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications covers
the problem of detect, sense and avoid in UAS (Unmanned Aircraft
Systems) in depth and combines the theoretical and application
results by leading academics and researchers from industry and
academia.

Key features:

• Presents a holistic view of the sense and avoid problem in the
  wider application of autonomous systems

• Includes information on human factors, regulatory issues and
  navigation, control, aerodynamics and physics aspects of the
  sense and avoid problem in UAS

• Provides professional, scientific and reliable content that is
  easy to understand, and

• Includes contributions from leading engineers and researchers
  in the field

Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications is an
invaluable source of original and specialised information. It acts
as a reference manual for practising engineers and advanced
theoretical researchers and also forms a useful resource for
younger engineers and postgraduate students. With its credible
sources and thorough review process, Sense and Avoid in UAS:
Research and Applications provides a reliable source of information
in an area that is fast expanding but scarcely covered.

Autorentext

Plamen Parvanov Angelov, Lancaster University, UK
Plamen Parvanov is a senior lecturer in the School of Computing and Communications at Lancaster University. He is an Associate Editor of three international journals and the founding co-Editor-in-Chief of the Springer journal Evolving Systems. He is also the Vice Chair of the Technical Committee on Standards, Computational Intelligence Society, IEEE and co-Chair of several IEEE conferences. His research in UAV/UAS is often publicised in external publications, e.g. the prestigious Computational Intelligence Magazine; Aviation Week, Flight Global, Airframer, Flight International, etc. His research focuses on computational intelligence and evolving systems, and his research in to autonomous systems has received worldwide recognition. As the Principle Investigator at Lancaster University for a team working on UAV Sense and Avoid fortwo projects of ASTRAEA his work was recognised by 'The Engineer Innovation and Technology 2008 Award in two categories: i) Aerospace and Defence and ii) The Special Award which is an outstanding achievement.

Zusammenfassung
There is increasing interest in the potential of UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) and MAV (Micro Air Vehicle) technology and their wide ranging applications including defence missions, reconnaissance and surveillance, border patrol, disaster zone assessment and atmospheric research. High investment levels from the military sector globally is driving research and development and increasing the viability of autonomous platforms as replacements for the remotely piloted vehicles more commonly in use.

UAV/UAS pose a number of new challenges, with the autonomy and in particular collision avoidance, detect and avoid, or sense and avoid, as the most challenging one, involving both regulatory and technical issues.

Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications covers the problem of detect, sense and avoid in UAS (Unmanned Aircraft Systems) in depth and combines the theoretical and application results by leading academics and researchers from industry and academia.

Key features:

• Presents a holistic view of the sense and avoid problem in the wider application of autonomous systems
• Includes information on human factors, regulatory issues and navigation, control, aerodynamics and physics aspects of the sense and avoid problem in UAS
• Provides professional, scientific and reliable content that is easy to understand, and
• Includes contributions from leading engineers and researchers in the field Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications is an invaluable source of original and specialised information. It acts as a reference manual for practising engineers and advanced theoretical researchers and also forms a useful resource for younger engineers and postgraduate students. With its credible sources and thorough review process, Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications provides a reliable source of information in an area that is fast expanding but scarcely covered.

Inhalt

Preface xv

About the Editor xix

About the Contributors xxi

Part I Introduction

1 Introduction 3

George Limnaios, Nikos Tsourveloudis and Kimon P. Valavanis

1.1 UAV versus UAS 3

1.2 Historical Perspective on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 5

1.3 UAV Classification 9

1.4 UAV Applications 14

1.5 UAS Market Overview 17

1.6 UAS Future Challenges 20

1.7 Fault Tolerance for UAS 26

References 31

2 Performance Tradeoffs and the Development of Standards 35

Andrew Zeitlin

2.1 Scope of Sense and Avoid 35

2.2 System Configurations 36

2.3 S&A Services and Sub-functions 38

2.4 Sensor Capabilities 39

2.4.1 Airborne Sensing 39

2.4.2 Ground-Based Sensing 41

2.4.3 Sensor Parameters 41

2.5 Tracking and Trajectory Prediction 42

2.6 Threat Declaration and Resolution Decisions 43

2.6.1 Collision Avoidance 43

2.6.2 Self-separation 45

2.6.3 Human Decision versus Algorithm 45

2.7 Sense and Avoid Timeline 46

2.8 Safety Assessment 48

2.9 Modeling and Simulation 49

2.10 Human Factors 50

2.11 Standards Process 51

2.11.1 Description 51

2.11.2 Operational and Functional Requirements 52

2.11.3 Architecture 52

2.11.4 Safety, Performance, and Interoperability Assessments 52

2.11.5 Performance Requirements 52

2.11.6 Validation 53

2.12 Conclusion 54

References 54

3 Integration of SAA Capabilities into a UAS Distributed

Architecture for Civil Applications 55

Pablo Royo, Eduard Santamaria, Juan Manuel Lema, Enric Pastor and Cristina Barrado

3.1 Introduction 55

3.2 System Overview 57

3.2.1 Distributed System Architecture 58

3.3 USAL Concept and Structure 59

3.4 Flight and Mission Services 61

3.4.1 Air Segment 61

3.4.2 Ground Segment 65

3.5 Awareness Category at USAL Architecture 68

3.5.1 Preflight Operational Procedures: Flight Dispatcher 70

3.5.2 USAL SAA on Airfield Operations 72

3.5.3 Awareness Category during UAS Mission 75

3.6 Conclusions 82

Acknowledgments 82

References 82

Part II Regulatory Issues and Human Factors

4 Regulations and Requirements 87

Xavier Prats, Jorge Ramirez, Luis Delgado and Pablo Royo

4.1 Background Information 88

4.1.1 Flight Rules 90

4.1.2 Airspace Classes 91

4.1.3 Types of UAS and their Missions 93

4.1.4 Safety Levels 96

4.2 Existing Regulations and Standards 97

4.2.1 Current Certification Mechanisms for UAS 99

4.2.2 Standardization Bodies and Safety Agencies 102

4.3 Sense and Avoid Requirements 103

4.3.1 General Sense Requirements 103

4.3.2 General Avoidance Requirements 106

4.3.3 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Airspace Class 108

4.3.4 Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Flight Altitude

and Visibility Conditions 109

4.3.5 Possible SAA Requirements as a Functi…