Nanomaterials

The evolution in the nanotechnology world clearly signifies a need for a broader understanding of the subject and this book will contribute to the effort.

Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development that has been growing explosively in the past decades. The contents of this book include mainly the fundamentals of nanoparticles, state-of-the-art in synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials, as well the influence of nanomaterials on the analytical systems (macro to micro & lab-on-a-chip) for biomedical, environmental and engineering applications.

This book seeks to broaden the understanding of modern developments in nanomaterials and comprises excellent contributions from subject matter experts working on most aspects of nanomaterials and nanotechnology.

Autorentext

Suvardhan Kanchi is currently at the Department of Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, South Africa. He has co-authored about 35 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals as well as 11 book chapters. Shakeel Ahmed is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Government Degree College Mendhar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in the area of biopolymers and bionanocomposites and has published several research publications in the area of green nanomaterials and biopolymers for various applications including biomedical, packaging, sensors, and water treatment. Myalowenkosi Sabela is currently conducting doctoral research at Durban University of Technology. He is a recipient of the Erasmus Mundus-EUROSA fellowship 20142015. His research interest is in pharmacokinetic and enantioselective parameters of pharmaceutical compounds in the presence of biomacromolecules and nanoparticles for applications such as diagnostics and sensors. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, is an Adjunct Professor, an Academic Advisor and Director of Laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and handbooks in his research areas.

Inhalt
Contents

Preface xiii

Part I: Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Characterization 1

**1 Synthesis, Characterization and General Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 3
**Falah H. Hussein, Firas H. Abdulrazzak, and Ayad F. Alkaim

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 The History of Carbon Nanotubes 5

1.3 Graphene 7

1.4 Graphite 10

1.5 Fullerene 11

1.6 Rehybridization 11

1.7 Structure of CNTs 13

1.8 Classification of Carbon Nanotubes 13

1.8.1 Classification by Chirality 14

1.8.2 Classification by Conductivity 15

1.8.3 Classification by Layers 15

1.9 Crystal Structures of Carbon Nanotubes 15

1.10 Synthesis Methods 17

1.10.1 Arc-Discharge 17

1.10.2 Laser Ablation 18

1.10.3 Flame Methods 19

1.10.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 20

1.11 The Purification Process of Carbon Nanotubes 22

1.12 Mechanism of Growth CNTs 23

1.12.1 The Model for Carbon Filament Growth 23

1.12.1.1 Tip Growth Model 24

1.12.1.2 Base Growth Model 24

1.12.2 Free Radical Condensate 25

1.12.3 Yarmulke Mechanism 26

1.13 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 27

1.13.1 Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 27

1.13.2 Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 28

1.14 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 28

1.14.1 Fuel Cells 29

1.14.2 Solar Cells 30

1.14.3 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 32

1.15 Characterization of CNTs 32

1.15.1 Raman Spectroscopy 32

1.15.1.1 G band 36

1.15.1.2 D Band 37

1.15.1.3 Radial Breathing Mode 37

1.15.2 X-Ray Diffraction 38

1.15.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 39

1.15.4 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis 41

1.15.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy 43

1.15.6 Scanning Electronic Microscopy 45

1.15.7 Scanning Helium Ion Microscopy 46

1.16 Composite of CNTs/Semiconductors 47

1.17 Recent Updates on Synthesis of CNTs 49

References 50

**2 Synthesis and Characterization of Phosphorene: A Novel 2D Material 61
**Sima Umrao, Narsingh R. Nirala, Gaurav Khandelwal, and Vinod Kumar

2.1 Introduction 61

2.1.1 History of Phosphorene 62

2.1.2 Crystal Structure 63

2.1.3 Band Structure 65

2.2 Synthesis of Phosphorene 65

2.2.1 Mechanical Exfoliation 65

2.2.2 Plasma-assisted Method 66

2.2.3 Liquid-Phase Exfoliation 68

2.2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 70

2.3 Characterization of Phosphorene 70

2.3.1 Structural Charcterizations 71

2.3.2 Spectroscopic Characterizations 73

2.3.3 Optical Band Gap Characterization 76

2.4 Environment Stability Issue of Phosphorene 80

2.5 Summary and Future Prospective 82

References 83

**3 Graphene for Advanced Organic Photovoltaics
**Tanvir Arfin and Shoeb Athar

3.1 Introduction 93

3.2 History of Graphene 94

3.3 Structure of Graphene 94

3.4 Graphene Family Nanomaterials 94

3.5 Properties of Graphene 95

3.5.1 Physicochemical Properties 95

3.5.2 Thermal and Electrical Properties 96

3.5.3 Optical Properties 96

3.5.4 Mechanical Properties 96

3.5.5 Biological Properties 96

3.6 Graphene for Advanced Organic Photovoltaics 96

3.6.2 Acceptor Material in OPVs 98

3.6.3 Interfacial Layer in OPVs 100

3.7 Conclusion 102

References 102

**4 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes by Chemical Vapor Deposition
**Falah H. Hussein and Firas H. Abdulrazzak

4.1 Introduction 105

4.2 Synthesis Methods 107

4.2.1 Arc-Discharge 108

4.2.2 Laser Ablation 109 4.2.3 Flame Methods 109...